Lexicology. From the history of vocabulary of the Russian literary language of the 17th – 19th centuries The history of words is studied in lexicology

This article will focus on lexicology. What it studies, what it is, what sections it is divided into and what modes of action it has, we will look at here.

Introduction

Lexicology is a linguistic branch that studies vocabulary. We have learned what lexicology studies, and now we will get acquainted with its general and specific parts. The latter is busy studying the lexical composition of a certain language. This science turned all its attention to:

the word and the meaning contained in it;
system of relationships between words;
historical facts through which vocabulary in the modern sense was formed;
the existing differences in words according to their functional and stylistic nature in various speech spheres.

Object and subject

The word serves as an object that lexicology studies. Another object of study is word formation and morphology. However, if in these branches of science the word is a means by which the grammatical structure and word-formation model, as well as language rules are studied, then in the science of lexicology the word is studied with the aim of knowing the meaning of the word itself and the linguistic vocabulary. It studies not individual linguistic units of oral speech, but directly the entire language system.

What does lexicology study in the Russian language? First of all, she is concerned with the consideration of the Russian and Slavic languages, which had active development in the course of historical events.

The subject of lexicology is

The word, as a part of language, considered using the theory of words.
The structure of the linguistic composition of words.
Functional capabilities of the lexical unit.
Possible ways to replenish the language composition.
Relationship with an extra-linguistic type of activity, for example with culture.

Main sections

Lexicology is a science that studies vocabulary, its basis. The science is quite extensive and has many sections, including:

onomasiology - a section on the process of naming objects;
semasiology - a section that studies words and phrases, namely their meaning;
phraseology - studies the vocabulary relationships between each other, and among themselves;
onomastics - busy with the study of existing names;
etymology - a section that pays attention to the historical origin of the word, also considers the abundance of vocabulary as a whole;
lexicography - focused on the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries;
stylistics is a section that studies the meaning of sayings and words of a connotative type.

Total information

Lexicology is a science that studies the vocabulary of a language, and the number of words in it is impossible to count. One, only seventeen-volume collection of the “Dictionary of Modern R.Ya.” includes more than 130,000 words, and the Oxford Dictionary contains over 300,000 words.

Lexicology studies the vocabulary of a language, which also includes little-known units of speech such as agnonyms, which refer to words with unknown meanings.

Speech units that are used frequently belong to the active vocabulary of the language. There are frequency dictionaries with which you can determine frequently used words. However, there is the concept of a passive dictionary, which includes elements of language that carry information about something, but are used relatively rarely. Such words belong to limitedly used vocabulary - dialectal, professional or slang words.

Replenishment of vocabulary

We have learned what lexicology studies, and now we will turn our attention to the ways in which the vocabulary is replenished.

The phenomenon of borrowing vocabulary from the languages of other peoples is one of the main such ways. Taken long ago, foreign words are now considered native Russian. However, very often this is not the case; an example of this is the unit of speech - bread, which came into the Russian language from Germanic. Due to borrowing, the original meaning of a word may change.

Another way to enrich lexical components is the formation of a new series of words. Such components of speech are called neologisms.

The further development of the fate of new words can be varied: some lose their novelty and become fixed among other elements of the language, others can be considered new formations created by an individual author (occasionalisms). The expansion of the boundaries of vocabulary also occurs due to the development of a new range of meanings for words that have been known for a long time and well.

Words that have sunk into oblivion

Lexicology studies words, among which obsolete units of language are also considered. Due to the influence of time on the word, by the way, it is falling out of use. This can be observed, for example, when an object or phenomenon that was previously often used disappears. These words are called historicisms. The disappearance of such a word also leads to the loss of the reality that it carries, but sometimes the realities themselves do not disappear, but are renamed and called archaisms.

Vocabulary as a system of mobile type

Vocabulary is like a system capable of advancement. This allows us to determine that words have a wide variety of relationships with each other for various semantic reasons. These words include synonyms - speech units that differ in form, but are close to each other in meaning.

There are words related to each other by the presence of a reason for commonality in the opposite meaning - antonyms. They point to opposite “things.” The opposite meaning of one speech unit is called enantiosemy. An example would be the phrases: “listen” in the understanding of the phrase “listen attentively”, and in the understanding “turn a deaf ear”.

The connection between words can be expressed in form. Almost every language carries words that have an external identity and can have different meanings. An example is the variety of meanings of the word - braid, which can be either an agricultural tool or a braid of hair. This type of words is called homonyms.

Homonyms, in turn, include different types of differences of the same nature. If linguistic units coincide in the “form” of sound only if there are separate reasons, then such words are called homoforms. Words that have the same spelling but differ in sound led to the creation of the term homograph. If the pronunciation is the same, but the spelling is different, then such words are called a homophone.

Paronyms include words that are similar, but have a difference in identity based on the characterized parameters of form and meaning. They also perfectly show us the essence of a formal type of communication.

There is a concept of interlingual homonyms and paronyms. Such words have formal similarities, but can have many meanings in different languages. They are called "false friends of translators."

Lexical units

Lexicology, as a branch of linguistics, studies the vocabulary components of any language, and knows that they have enormous diversity and heterogeneity. There are categories that were identified due to the presence of special distinctive features in them. In the lexicology of the Russian language, the following many subspecies are foreseen:

by areas of application, they are divided into: commonly used types of words and units of vocabulary that are used under special circumstances in science, poetry, vernacular, dialect, etc.;
by the magnitude of the emotional load, which includes units of speech colored by emotional or neutral “color”;
in accordance with historical development, divided into archaisms and neologisms;
according to the history of origin and development, divided into internationalism, borrowing, etc.;
in accordance with functionality - active and passive type vocabulary units;

Given the continuous development of languages, what lexicology considers includes insurmountable boundaries of study, constantly expanding and changing.

Lexical problems

In this science there is a concept of certain problems that it studies. Among them are:

Structural problems that determine the form of perception of a word, the structural basis of its elements.
A semantic problem involved in studying the question of the meaning of a lexical unit.
Functional problems of the general system of language, exploring the role of words and speech units in the language itself.

Speaking about the first problem and the aspect of development, we can summarize that this science is busy establishing specific criteria by which the differences and identities of a separate series of words can be determined. To avoid this, a lexical unit is compared with a phrase, and a structure for analysis is developed to establish the invariance of words.

The semantic problem expresses itself as a question of semasiology - a science that studies the connections between words and specific objects. In lexicology, this is one of the extremely important objects of study. His study is focused on the meaning of the word, its individual categories and types, which allow the creation of terms: monosymy (univocality) and polysymy (ambiguity). Lexicology tries to explore the cause-and-effect relationships that lead to the loss or emergence of new meanings for words.

The functional problem tries to study a lexical unit, in the form of an object, which is associated with another similar element and creates a complete linguistic system. In this understanding, the role of interaction between grammar and vocabulary is considered extremely important. They can both support and limit each other.

conclusions

We have determined that lexicology studies the vocabulary of a language, its structure, disappearing units of speech, such as historicisms, and has built an idea of the meaning of words. We examined their types and variations and determined the problems of this science. Thanks to this, we can summarize that its importance cannot be overestimated, since it is extremely important for the general system of the language and tracking trends in its development.

Object and subject of lexicology

Units of the lexical-semantic system

Specifics of the lexical-semantic system

Main problems of lexicology

Sections of lexicology

Literature

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Object and subject of lexicology

Lexicology(Greek lexis'word', lexikos'vocabulary', logos‘teaching, science’) – a branch of linguistics that studies vocabulary language (vocabulary) in its current state And historical development.

Branches of linguistics that study different tiers of the language system actually have two objects:

unit appropriate level, its nature and properties,

system of units, the relationships between these units.

Objects of lexicology- This

word as a lexical unit (LE),

vocabulary(vocabulary) as a set of words, organized and structured in a certain way.

The word is the object of various linguistic disciplines. Each of them views the word from a certain angle, i.e. with a common object has its own item:

studied in phonetics sound side words,

in morphemics – structure words,

word formation – ways of education words,

in morphology – grammatical forms And grammatical meanings words,

in syntax - connection methods words and forms of words into phrases and sentences [SRYa, p. 165].

Word like grammatical unit– this is a system of all its forms with their grammatical meanings; word like lexical unit, or unit of a dictionary, is a formally expressed system of all its lexical meanings [Russian grammar, p. 453].

In lexicology, a word is considered

in terms of its subject-conceptual content

and as a unit of vocabulary of a language.

Word wing , for example, is of interest here

but as Name:

the organ of flight in birds, insects, and some mammals;

the bearing plane of an aircraft or other moving vehicle;

rotating blade of a windmill wheel;

tires over the wheel of a carriage, car, etc.;

side extension, outbuilding;

extreme (right or left) part of the combat formation;

extreme (right or left) group of any organization.

b) how unit of the lexical system, which is in certain relationships with other lexical units, for example, as part of Class names of bird body parts along with words tail, beak etc.

Opposition grammatical forms of words(word forms) in the same meaning ( wing, wing, wing...) is insignificant for lexicology. This is the subject of studying grammar.

On the contrary, the study of the similarities and differences of semantic variants of the same word in the entire system of their forms ( wing, wing, wing...‘organ of flight’; wing, wing, wing...‘carrying plane’, etc.) is one of the most important tasks of lexicology [SRYa, p. 165].

However, when studying words in lexicology, it is impossible to completely ignore grammar, since vocabulary and grammar are closely related.

Units of the lexical-semantic system

Word- a sound or complex of sounds that has meaning and employee name objects and phenomena of reality [SRYASH, p. 165].

The definition states iconic nature words and his function.

A word, as opposed to a phoneme, is sign:

there is also a material side to it - sound or spelling(phonographic shell),

and the ideal side - meaning.

Main function words - nominative(lat. nominatio ‘naming, denomination’). Most words called objects, their characteristics, quantity, actions, processes are meaningful and independent.

Words name not only specific objects, but also concepts about these objects arising in the minds of speakers.

With the word correlate all language units:

phonemes And morphemes make up the structure of a word,

phrases And offers consist of words.

This gives grounds for some scientists to say that the word is central unit of language.

Since a word is a complex and multidimensional phenomenon, the term word polysemantic and indefinite: it denotes

and words like vocabulary units(linguistic units);

and words like units of speech, text(words with specific meanings and specific grammatical forms).

For example, in a sentence Man is man's friend

three words in specific grammatical forms

And two words as vocabulary units: Human And Friend[Kodukhov, p. 184].

The word is called and unambiguous words and individual meanings multi-valued words

Lexicology uses clearer terms to refer to these different objects.

The most common term is lexical item(LE)

Lexical unit is a unit of the lexical level of a language that has bilateral character, grammatical form and performing nominative function.

Term lexical item is ancestral in relation to terms token And lexical-semantic variant:

┌─────────┴─────────┐

lexeme lexico-semantic

Token(Greek lé xis ‘word, expression’) is a unit of the lexical level of language, which is a collection all forms and meanings of one word[≈ LES, p. 257; ERYA, p. 207].

Those. lexeme is two-way unit:

token = –––––––––––––––––––––––

expression plan

Less common narrower understanding of the term token - just how units of expression plan, which is the totality of all grammatical forms of a word. In this case, the lexical unit represents a unity lexemes And sememes[ERYA, p. 207]:

sememe= content plan

LE = ––––––––––––––––––––––––

token= expression plan

Term token usually used only in relation to words significant parts of speech.

Lexico-semantic variant(LSV) – one of the lexical meanings of the lexeme, expressed by the phonographic shell.

Otherwise: LSV– a lexeme in one of its meanings. Those. LSV is also bilateral unit. LSV of one token

differ in their lexical meanings (LZ)

and coincide in form (sound and graphic expression).

For example, sleeve –

piece of clothing covering the hand ( short sleeves);

branch from the main river channel ( right branch of the Volga);

hose for supplying liquids, bulk or viscous substances, gases ( firehose).

All these values are connected by the relationship semantic productivity(native speakers are aware of the connection between these meanings), so the identity of the word is not violated.

Token is a system of interconnected LSV:

lexeme = LSV 1 + LSV 2 + LSV 3

If the word definitely, it is presented one LSV:

stomp‘noise, sounds from kicks when walking’.

Term "lexical unit" is also used in relation to token, and in relation to LSV, if there is no need to differentiate them.

LE, lexeme and LSV are linguistic units, because represent set of meanings and forms.

IN speeches these abstract units are realized in specific units, because is selected every time one meaning and one form:

Dress with shortsleeves .

Specific implementation lexemes or LSV in speech (text) are called:

lex(A) (the term is not very commonly used),

word form– a word in a certain grammatical form (the term comes from grammar),

word usage is a relatively new term.

[History of Lexicology]

Lexicology emerged as a separate branch of linguistics later than some others, for example, grammar. Even in the 20th century. some early directions of structuralism denied the need to distinguish lexicology, either on the grounds that vocabulary is supposedly weakly structured, or because linguistics should not deal with semantics at all, which forms the core of lexicology (L. Bloomfield’s school).

A number of problems of lexicology were discussed long before its emergence as a special branch of linguistics. In ancient times and the Middle Ages, issues of semantics and word structure were considered. Ancient rhetoric also paid attention to the artistic function of the word. Development of lexicography in Europe in the 16th-18th centuries. stimulated the development of lexicology. In the prefaces to explanatory dictionaries (for example, the dictionary of the French Academy, 1694, the English dictionary of S. Johnson, 1755) a number of lexicological categories were noted (synonymy, collocation, primary and derivative words, etc.). The term “lexicology” was first introduced by the French encyclopedia of D. Diderot and J. L. D’Alembert in 1765, where lexicology is defined as one of two (along with syntax) sections of the study of language. The authors saw the task of lexicology in the study of words beyond their specific use in speech, in the study of the general principles of organization of the vocabulary of a language. They emphasized in lexicology the study of the external form, meaning and etymology of words (which also meant word formation). In treatises on stylistics of the 18th century. the ways of forming figurative meanings of words were described in more detail. The first works on comparative historical linguistics (R. K. Rusk, F. Bopp) laid the foundations of comparative lexicology. In the 19th century The main area of lexicological research in Europe was semantics: the internal form of a word was studied (W. von Humboldt), the general patterns of the formation and evolution of the meanings of words (A. Darmsteter, G. Paul), historical lexicology received great development. The achievements of semasiology were generalized and developed in the work of M. Breal (1897), where semasiology appeared as a special branch of the science of language. Continued into the 20th century. the development of semasiology was aimed, on the one hand, at identifying the general semantic laws of the evolution of word meanings using data from logic or psychology (E. Cassirer, H. Kronasser, S. Ullman, G. Stern and others), which subsequently led to the development of semantic universals , on the other hand, to study the history of words in connection with the history of objects (the “Words and Things” school, characteristic, in particular, of dialectology). The onomasiological direction in lexicology, which contributed to the study of groups of words, was described in the book by B. Quadri (1952).

The idea of systematic linguistic phenomena, which is increasingly penetrating into lexicology, is reflected primarily in the theory of lexical fields, built on paradigmatic (J. Trier) and syntagmatic (W. Porzig) principles. The completion of field theory is the thesaurus representation of the organization of the dictionary (S. Bally, R. Hallig, W. von Wartburg). The problem of the general theory of the word as a unit of language was developed, discussions continued regarding the separability of the word and its criteria (Bally, A. Martinet, J. H. Greenberg and others), its semantics (C. K. Ogden, A. Richards, K. Baldinger) . The study of the correlation of vocabulary with the extra-linguistic world, the history of words in the history of society (P. Lafargue; French sociological school: A. Meillet, E. Benveniste, J. Matore, M. Cohen), vocabulary and the structure of consciousness of speakers (E. Sapir) has received great development , B. Whorf, L. Weisgerber). Linguists of the Prague school identified the functional differentiation of vocabulary.

[Basic information]

The subject of lexicology, as follows from the very name of this science, is the word (Greek leksis, leksicos - word, expression; logos - teaching). Thus, lexicology examines the vocabulary (lexical) composition of a language in different aspects. It is customary to distinguish general And private lexicology. The first, called general lexicology in English, is a section of general linguistics that studies the vocabulary of any language, what relates to lexical universals. Special lexicology deals with the study of issues related to the vocabulary of one language, in our case English. Thus, general lexicology can consider, for example, the principles of synonymous or antonymic relations in a language, while specific lexicology will deal with the peculiarities of English synonyms or antonyms.

Both general and specific problems of vocabulary can be analyzed in various aspects. First of all, any phenomenon can be approached with synchronous or diachronic points of view. The synchronic approach assumes that the characteristics of a word are considered within a certain period or one historical stage of their development. This study of vocabulary is also called descriptive lexicology. Diachronic, or historical, lexicology (historical lexicology) studies the historical development of the meanings and structure of words.

Lexicology is concerned with comparing the lexical phenomena of one language with the facts of another or other languages. comparative, or contrasting(contrastive lexicology). The purpose of such studies is to trace the ways of intersection or divergence of lexical phenomena characteristic of the languages chosen for comparison.

The choice of approach to studying the lexical composition of a language is determined by the tasks that the researcher sets for himself. In this case, data obtained in branches of linguistics related to lexicology are often used. Thus, the meaning of a word or the definition of its boundaries is influenced by its phonetic characteristics, such as the quality of phonemes, stress, order of phonemes, etc. For example, it is enough to compare the pairs sor/sore, hut/heart, or remember that sounds are impossible at the beginning of English words , [ŋ], or [Θl], and at the end - the sounds [h] or [w]. Phonetic changes in diachrony and reduction of endings often led to the coincidence of stems, as happened, for example, with the Old English verb carian and the noun cura, known in the modern form saga. Ultimately, such changes contributed to the change from the inflectional structure of the language to the analytical one, and the emergence of new word-formation methods, for example, conversion.

The grammatical form may be meaningful, for example, arm - arms (arms and hands; coat of arms); genius - geniusi, geniuses; open (open the door; the open door). On the other hand, the grammatical meaning can be expressed lexically (We are going there tomorrow instead of We shall go there or Gone today, forgotten tomorrow), while the form of conveying the future tense is the same as in We are going there now, i.e. when using the present continuous tense. Lexicalization of a grammatical form affects the nature of the function of the word, while the lexical meaning is often weakened. This is clearly seen in the example of the modal verb sculan (modern form - shall), the predominant function of which is auxiliary.

The need to select lexical means depending on the circumstances of speech determines the connection between lexicology and stylistics, although lexicology studies the causes and methods of developing new shades of meaning that give expressiveness to speech, and stylistics is mainly concerned with the nature of the functioning of these means in the text. For example, from the point of view of lexicology, the words father and dad are synonyms, differing in shade of meaning, but for stylistic analysis it is important that this shade makes these words function in different spheres of speech (colloquial style involves the use of the word dad, and the official style - the word father).

In any case, the focus of researchers remains on the word or the equivalent of a word.

In the linguistic literature one can find various definitions of the word. The definition of a word in ERL is succinct: “The most important structural and semantic unit of language, used to name objects, processes, properties.” The Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary gives the following definition: “A word is the basic structural-semantic unit of language, used to name objects and their properties, phenomena, relations of reality, possessing a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features specific to each language.” We find a much more detailed definition in E. S. Kubryakova, where, referring to J. Trnka, she describes the word as

“a formal sequence whose parts are combined to perform common communicative functions; all sequences of this kind can be moved in the text or separated from each other without them losing their identity to themselves” (Kubryakova, 1986). Historically, one can count more than 70 criteria for defining a word according to graphic, phonetic, structural, grammatical, semantic and other principles. The most important consideration is that any of these criteria relates the object of study to a system, clarifying its connections within the structure, its boundaries and relationships with other objects. Even A.I. Smirnitsky identified two main problems associated with the definition of a word - the problem of its isolation, on the one hand, and the problem of its identity, on the other. The separateness of a word is understood as its difference from a morpheme as a unit of a lower level and from a phrase as a unit of a higher level. Identity means the consistency of word usage and the invariability of the basic characteristics of a unit. Any word can be examined from different angles, looking for the answer to one or more key questions. In search of answers, various aspects of the study of words were formed, and sections of lexicology were formed. Let us highlight the main of these issues.

1.What does this word mean? This question seems to be the most difficult and usually requires detailed data to answer it. The branch of lexicology that deals with problems related to the meaning of a word is called semasiology.

2. What does this word consist of and where are its boundaries? Strictly speaking, the composition of a word is dealt with by an independent branch of linguistics - morphology, but this section is inextricably linked with lexicological problems, therefore some problems related to morphology are solved within the framework of lexicological research, for example, the question of the meaning of affixes and their relationships with stems.

3. How is the word formed? The answer to this question can be found in the section word formation, closely related to morphology.

4. In what area is this word used? These are already tasks stylistics, which was mentioned above. Within the framework of lexicological research, the question is important from the point of view of the overall scope of the meaning of the word; here we return again to the section of semasiology.

5. Often one concept can be described not by one word, but by a constant group of words (casual - free and easy; to begin (smth) - to get (smth) under way; etc.). As a rule, such phrases are stable and more emotional than the corresponding word. Their characteristics are dealt with by the branch of lexicology called phraseology.

6.What is the origin of the word? Since the answer to this question often requires the use of data from several languages, its search goes beyond the scope of lexicology itself. The corresponding branch of linguistics is called etymology, but his data are especially necessary in lexicological studies of the vocabulary of the English language due to its specificity - the English vocabulary consists of 70% borrowed elements.

7. How to describe a word? How to organize all the answers to the previous questions? What systems does the word belong to? These are already tasks lexicography, the science of compiling dictionaries, the data of which is also used by lexicologists.

As we can see, the vocabulary of a language is a multidimensional phenomenon. Elements of a dictionary and vocabulary are interconnected by ordered, systemic relationships. First of all, all units of vocabulary can be divided into three large groups - morphemes, words and phrases. The mention of morpheme is appropriate here because a huge number of words in the English language are single-morpheme and can function as a word; Thus, a unit from a lower tier of language moves to a higher tier. Combining words into groups with a single meaning leads to the emergence of phrases, both free and stable, including phraseological ones. From the above it is clear that the central unit remains the word, or lexeme, that is, an invariant of all possible word forms. A word form, according to Yu. S. Maslov’s definition, is a kind of abstract unit, “abstraction of the first degree,” expressed in a text (speech) by a specific instance of a word (Maslov, 1987, p. 13). According to the observation of V. Ya. Plotkin, in the paradigms of English verbs and nouns, 3 types of word forms are found: analytical (will work, an egg), synthetic (worked, eggs) and unmarked, i.e. not containing grammatical indicators (work, egg) (Plotkin, 1989, p. 32).

As is known, a word is a two-sided linguistic sign that has a plane of expression and a plane of content. In human consciousness, the word, i.e. the unity of these plans, is associated not only with the object or phenomenon itself, designated by this word, but also with the concepts that make up the surrounding reality. In this regard, it is customary to talk about intralingual (linguistic) And extralinguistic (extralinguistic) factors influencing the word and its functioning in language and speech. Both linguistic and extra-linguistic connections of a word are especially clearly visible in diachrony, since it is in historical development that it is clearly visible how changes in any element lead to adjustments in the relationship of the word with other elements and its position in the system.

Intralingual connections of a word can contribute to the regrouping of meanings and, accordingly, a change in the microsystem in which the word is included, or affect the scope of the concept reflected by this word.

Regrouping of meanings usually affects synonymous series and is often associated with the appearance of so-called etymological doublets. Thus, the Old English word haerfest, meaning season, was supplanted by the Romance loan autumn with the same meaning. In the original word, the derivative meaning (season for) reaping and gathering in of grain or other products came to the fore.

An example of a change in the scope of a concept is the history of the word knave. In the Old English period, the word cnafa had the neutral meaning of boy, servant (cf. German Knabe). Gradually developing, the word acquired a different meaning - unprincipled man, rogue. The scope of the concept includes an additional element of evaluation. Another example is the verb layer and its derivative layered. According to the observations of W. Safire, starting in the 60s. XX century the meaning of this word is associated with fashion trends, first in hairdressing (layered hair styles introduced by Vidal Sassoon), and then in clothing (the layered look - big skirts with tight pants, tiers of fabric, one color on top of the other). The change in the thematic group to which the word originally belonged (paints, coloring) continues. A new element is introduced into the scope of meaning - a fashionable trend in administrative politics: “They never fired anyone either.” They just put a super-whatever on top. When they put somebody else in below, they call it sandwiching” (Safire, 1993, p. 181).

Extra-linguistic connections of a word also influence its meaning, but here we are not talking about a change in the linguistic microsystem, but about an addition or change in the structure of the meaning of a word under the influence of external factors. Such external factors include changes in the set of concepts in society and the processes that took place in the source language of the borrowing before the word came into English.

A change in the set of concepts in a language community makes it necessary to designate a new object or phenomenon that has appeared. Often, words that already exist in the language, or rather their figurative meanings, are used for this purpose. For example, the appearance of camouflage fabric and military uniforms made from it influenced the meaning of the word samo (short for camouflage): a color combination and pattern resembling the camouflage garments of soldiers and their equipment. In connection with the advent of computer equipment, the noun mouse acquired an additional figurative meaning. The influence of external factors can lead to the loss of part of the meaning, as, for example, happened in the word address, where the behavior component (pleasing address) became outdated along with the code of conduct accepted in society.

A set of meanings assigned to any soundographic complex can be formed outside the English language system, in the source language(s) of borrowing. In these cases, homonymy is not uncommon, that is, the formal side coincides with a divergence in the content. An example is the homonymous nouns box: 1) kinds of small evergreen shrub, esp. one with small leathery leaves, much used in garden borders (L. buxus); 2) receptacle of wood, cardboard, metal, etc. (L. buxum - boxwood); 3) slap with hand (origin unknown). Here, as we see, the derivative meaning arose already in the Latin period of the history of the word, finally breaking away from the direct one already in the English language.

Thus, we see that lexicology as a linguistic discipline exists in close contact with other aspects of linguistics, solving various problems associated with the word - the basic unit of the language system

The view of language as an integral system is not shared by all researchers. As an example, there are two polar opposite points of view. One of them was proposed by V.P. Berkov in the textbook “Norwegian Lexicology”: “... the vocabulary of any language is not a system... The above, of course, does not exclude the fact that groups of lexical units can be located according to their different characteristics in systemic relationships with each other...” (Berkov, 1994, p. 8). A completely different opinion is shared by V. A. Karpov, the author of an interesting study of the patterns of structure and functioning of natural languages based on general systems theory (Karpov, 1992)

[Lexicology in Russia and the USSR]

In Russia, the foundations of lexicology were laid by the works of M. V. Lomonosov, who drew attention to the stylistic differentiation of vocabulary (“Theory of Three Styles”), as well as the nature of historical changes in vocabulary (conclusions about the stability of the main vocabulary of the language).

In the 19th - early 20th centuries. in connection with lexicographic work and the study of the history of Russian and Slavic languages, historical lexicology and etymology were actively developed (A. Kh. Vostokov, I. I. Sreznevsky, J. K. Grot and others), territorial and social differentiation of vocabulary was studied (V. I. Dal, A. I. Sobolevsky, I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay), vocabulary of writers’ language and other problems.

The works of A. A. Potebnya and M. M. Pokrovsky made a great contribution to the development of world lexicology. Potebnya deeply developed the general theory of the word, both in terms of form and especially in terms of content (deepening the doctrine of the internal form of the word, the doctrine of the immediate - linguistic and further - extra-linguistic meanings of the word, provisions on the semantic relationships of words, polysemy, variability of word meanings ). In the works of Pokrovsky (90s of the 19th century), the foundations of general semasiology are laid and general patterns of development of word meanings are revealed.

Continuing the best traditions of Russian linguistic science, lexicological research in the USSR has acquired a wide scope; it is carried out on material from different languages. This was facilitated by an in-depth study of the Russian language, scientific study of the languages of the peoples of the USSR, active lexicographic activity, as well as the fact that lexicology was included as a compulsory theoretical course in the system of higher philological education. It was in the USSR that lexicology took shape as a special university linguistic discipline.

In the post-revolutionary years, first of all, the sociolinguistic study of vocabulary expanded (the study of the vocabulary of different population groups, the study of changes in vocabulary caused by the October Revolution of 1917). Works of this period carried out within the framework of the problem language and society, laid the foundations of the Soviet and world sociolinguistics, which received its justification and development in the works of E. D. Polivanov, B. A. Larin, D. S. Likhachev, V. M. Zhirmunsky, N. Ya. Marr, V. V. Vinogradov, F. P. Filin, R. A. Budagov and others. The study of words in artistic creativity was also of great importance. Numerous works on the language of writers were published (A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, N. V. Gogol, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, M. Gorky, T. G. Shevchenko, I. Franko and others) . Soviet scientists deeply study the stratification of vocabulary, as well as the features of vocabulary and word usage in folk dialects.

Soviet linguists, based on the position that the word is the basic unit of language, made a great contribution to the general theory of the word, to the definition of its boundaries, its relationship with the concept (A. M. Peshkovsky, L. V. Shcherba, Vinogradov, A. I. Smirnitsky, R. O. Shor, S. D. Katsnelson, O. S. Akhmanova, Yu. V. Rozhdestvensky); special attention is paid to the semantic aspect of the word (L. A. Bulakhovsky, V. A. Zvegintsev, D. N. Shmelev, B. Yu. Gorodetsky, A. E. Suprun and others). The achievement of Soviet lexicology is the development of a typology of word meanings (Vinogradov), the doctrine of lexical-semantic variants of a word (Smirnitsky), and an intermediate link in the development of word meanings (Budagov). Thanks to these studies, the problem of word polysemy received a reliable theoretical basis,

Studying the word as a unit of language and the vocabulary in its synchrony, Soviet linguists conduct research in the field of etymology (O. N. Trubachev), historical lexicology (Filin), and the history of the vocabulary of a literary language (Yu. S. Sorokin). There are numerous monographic studies on many categories of lexicology: synonymy, antonymy, internationalisms, terminology, phraseological units, etc. Exploring all layers and aspects of the vocabulary of different languages, Soviet linguists in the 70-80s. special attention is paid to the problems of systematic vocabulary, including lexical paradigmatics (Shmelev, A. A. Ufimtseva, Yu. N. Karaulov), lexical semantics in connection with the general theory nominations And references, interaction of vocabulary with other levels of language, primarily with syntax (Yu. D. Apresyan), psycholinguistic aspects of vocabulary (study of lexical associations, etc.), comparative study of vocabulary of different languages (Budagov, V. G. Gak). The study of interaction in the field of vocabulary of the languages of the peoples of the USSR is of great practical and theoretical importance (Yu. D. Desheriev, I. F. Protchenko). The methodology of lexicological research is being actively developed (M. D. Stepanova, N. I. Tolstoy, E. M. Mednikova and others).

Usus and grammar

Foreign words sometimes attract, and sometimes scare away, because it is not always clear what is hidden behind them - exotic or boring routine. I hope that the word “uzus” does not cause “horror”, since it simply means “linguistic custom”. However, this word has become established as a term along with the word “grammar,” which many listeners often associate with a set of boring rules with a bunch of examples on various “perfects” and subjunctive moods.

You can call similar phenomena differently, for example, “speech patterns” can be called “grammatical models” or “interactive schemes,” but you always need to justify why you call them that and what is the fundamental difference between such names.

If we limit ourselves to deciphering “usus” through the short definition “speech custom,” then it will not be clear why the term “usus” is needed (from the English word “usual” = “ordinary”).

If we show the significant role of “usus” and its influence on grammar, speech patterns and phraseological units, then the use of such a term will be justified.

If, when studying a foreign language, you understand the role played by “usus” (speech custom), then grammar will cease to be a dogma and a set of boring rules for you, reminiscent of mathematical formulas with an explanation that claims to be universal - they say, just substitute it into this formula any verbs and you will get the desired result when communicating in a foreign language. You will simply understand that in many grammars there is a lot of information “garbage” that you can discard and choose for yourself what you need for practical purposes.

For practical purposes, you need your speech intention, which you first formed in your native language, to be able to express adequately and equivalently in another language. I highlight exactly speech intention, since communication is also possible at the level of gestures and interjections - winking, nodding the head, shrugging shoulders, waving arms, snapping fingers, saying all sorts of “oh”, “ah”, “uh-huh”, “hmm”, “brr” and so on .

By the way, even at the level of such communication with the help of gestures and interjections, “usus” begins to operate, since the meaning of some gestures may be the same for many nations (for example, a shrug of the shoulders often means bewilderment or “I don’t know”), but many other gestures can be perceived completely ambiguous. The same is with interjections - when we are hurt, we exclaim “ouch!”, and in English-speaking countries “ouch!”, when we are surprised or admired, then “wow!”, and an American will say “wow!” and so on.

If we move from gestures and interjections to full-fledged speech samples, then even at the level of individual short words the influence of “usus” on the form of expression in a particular language will be traced.

For example, the Russian word "okay" can mean approval or agreement with something, which is equivalent to the English "OK". But the Russian word “okay” can also be used in such a combination as “come on!” meaning “stop talking nonsense” or something like that. It is impossible to use the English “OK” in this sense, not because grammar prohibits it; grammar makes it possible, using some formula, to compose any absurdity like “OK with you!”, but it will be precisely absurdity, since the English “usus” does not recognize such a phrase as meaningful, and even more so it will not be equivalent to the Russian combination “come on!”

English usage allows us to use the combination “OK” in the following phrase: “Are you OK?” in the meaning “Is everything okay with you?”, but the Russian word “okay” is not usually used in the Russian phrase: “Is everything okay with you?”, more often they ask - Well, how are you? Everything is fine?

Uzus works precisely according to the “accepted” – “not accepted” type. It is customary to say this, or, conversely, it is not customary to say this.

Some English verbs, for example, do, have and a number of others, along with their basic meanings (to have, to do), are sometimes used in various combinations, for example, “that will ldo”, that won't do, I can do without you, which are actually phraseological units, but are used in everyday speech not for decoration, but at the simplest level of usage. When completing some work, we say: “That’s enough for today,” and an Englishman will say: “That will do for today.” Listeners often expect the word “enough” in this meaning, since they have learned this particular word; it is also strange for them to hear “that won’t do” in the sense of “this won’t work, it’s not good” or “I can do without you” in the sense of “ I can do without you,” although these are the simplest and daily used phrases for the English.

For an Englishman studying the Russian language, it is also not easy to understand Russian phraseological units such as “by all means”, “suddenly out of nowhere”, “out of nowhere” and others, which we use not to decorate speech, but just in everyday conversation at the level of usage.

As soon as a student of a foreign language course begins to communicate at the level of “usus” and not “grammar,” he begins to approach full mastery of the language being studied, the speech custom of which dictates the use of original speech forms that do not coincide with the forms of the native language.

As soon as he stops perceiving a greeting like “howdoyoudo” as a question about how he is and how he is doing, and reacts automatically with the same “howdoyoudo”, then he has moved away from blindly copying grammatical forms and has comprehended the “usus” of such type of phrases.

As soon as a foreign listener studying the Russian language stops perceiving phrases like “yeah, right now, I’ve run away” as a promise to immediately run to fulfill someone’s request, then it means that he has understood the “usus” of such phrases in Russian and does not perceive everything as "clean" coin.

At the initial stage of learning, it is very difficult to immediately engage in “usus”, so it is quite natural to strive for correct “grammar” and to literally copy phrases of the native language. Reliance on the native language, of course, is necessary, but not as a “blind” copying translation, but as an opportunity to select various equivalents for a particular foreign word, especially a verb.

Related information.

Lexicology

Lexicology(from ancient Greek. λέξις - word, expression, λόγος - judgment) - a section of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a language, or vocabulary. Lexicology is divided into general and specific. Private lexicology studies the lexical composition of a particular language. Lexicology considers:

word and its meaning
system of word relationships
history of the formation of modern vocabulary
functional and stylistic differences between words in different areas of speech

The object of study is the word. It is also studied in morphology and word formation. However, if in them words turn out to be a means for studying the grammatical structure and word-formation models and rules of the language, then in lexicology words are studied for the knowledge of the words themselves, as well as the vocabulary of the language (vocabulary). Since vocabulary is not just a sum of words, but a certain system of mutually relative and interconnected facts, lexicology appears as a science not about individual words, but about the lexical system of the language as a whole.

Subject of lexicology:

1) The word from the point of view of the theory of the word. For example, how the meaning of a word relates to the concept. What is the role of the word in the text and in the language.
2) The structure of the vocabulary of the language. That is: how lexical units are related (in what relationships they are).
3) Functioning of lexical units. Combination of words, frequency of use, etc.
4) Ways to replenish the vocabulary of a language. How new words are created and how new meanings are formed for words.
5) Correlations between vocabulary and extra-linguistic reality. For example, how vocabulary can relate to culture.

Sections of lexicology

Sections of lexicology:

1) Onomasiology (ancient Greek. ὄνομα name, ancient Greek λόγος judgment) - explores the process of naming objects.
2) Semasiology (ancient Greek. σημασία sign, meaning, ancient Greek. λόγος judgment) - explores the meaning of words and phrases. Answers the question of how extra-linguistic reality is reflected in words.
3) Phraseology (ancient Greek. φράσις way of expression, ancient Greek. λόγος judgment) - studies the phraseological composition of the language, the relationship of words among themselves and with other units of language.
4) Onomastics (ancient Greek. ὀνομαστική letters - the art of giving names) - studies already existing proper names in the broad sense of the word: a) toponymy - studies geographical names; b) anthroponymy - studies the names and surnames of people.
5) Etymology (ancient Greek. ἔτυμον original meaning [of a word]) - studies the origin of words and vocabulary as a whole.
6) Lexicography - deals with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries.
7) Stylistics - studies the connotative meaning of words and expressions.

Literature

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Synonyms:

See what “Lexicology” is in other dictionaries:

Lexicology… Spelling dictionary-reference book

Section of “linguistics” (see), dedicated to the study of vocabulary. Literary encyclopedia. At 11 vol.; M.: Publishing House of the Communist Academy, Soviet Encyclopedia, Fiction. Edited by V. M. Fritsche, A. V. Lunacharsky. 1929 1939 … Literary encyclopedia

- (Greek, from lexikon dictionary, and lego I say). The science that studies the composition and formation of language forms. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. LEXICOLOGY Greek, from lexikon, dictionary, and lego,... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

lexicology- and, f. lexicologie f.gr. lexis word+ logos science. A branch of linguistics that studies vocabulary. BAS 1. The term lexicology was first introduced by the encyclopedia of D. Diderot and J. D. Alembert in 1765. LES 261. Clarification of the essence of the meaning of a word, analysis... ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language

- (from the Greek lexikos relating to the word and...logy), a section of linguistics that studies the vocabulary, vocabulary of a language... Modern encyclopedia

- (from the Greek lexikos relating to the word and...logy) a section of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a language... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

LEXICOLOGY, lexicology, many others. no, female (from the Greek lekxikos vocabulary and logos teaching) (philol.). A department of linguistics that studies vocabulary and the vocabulary of the language. Works on lexicology. Do lexicology. Ushakov's explanatory dictionary. D.N. Ushakov... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

LEXICOLOGY, and, female. The branch of linguistics is the science of the vocabulary of a language. | adj. lexical, oh, oh. Ozhegov's explanatory dictionary. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 … Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

Noun, number of synonyms: 8 lexicography (5) linguistics (73) semantics (8) ... Synonym dictionary

Lexicology- LEXICOLOGY (Greek) the study of vocabulary or vocabulary Ph.D. language... Dictionary of literary terms

LEXICOLOGY- (from the Greek lexicon – dictionary + ...logy). A branch of linguistics that studies the vocabulary and vocabulary of a language. L. studies the following main problems: the word as the basic unit of language; types of lexical units; ways to replenish and develop vocabulary... ... New dictionary of methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of language teaching)

Books

Lexicology of the modern Russian language. Textbook, N. M. Shansky. `Lexicology of the modern Russian language`N. M. Shansky is one of the first monographic studies of the vocabulary of the Russian language, which largely determined the development of this industry...

Parameter name	Meaning
Article topic:	Lecture No. 2.
Rubric (thematic category)	Lexicology

The connection between lexicology and other branches of linguistics.

Subject of lexicology.

Subject of lexicology. The word as a unit of lexicology.

Lecture No. 1.

1. Subject of lexicology.

2. The connection between lexicology and other branches of linguistics.

3. The word as the basic unit of the Russian language.

The branch of language science that studies the lexical system is usually called lexicology(from the Greek lexikos - vocabulary and logos - teaching). The study of the lexical system as a form of organization of the interaction of words is carried out by descriptive, or synchronous(from Greek syn - together and chronos - time), and historical, or diachronic(from Greek dia – through and chronos – time), lexicology. The subject of descriptive lexicology is vocabulary in its modern state. Historical lexicology examines vocabulary in its emergence and development. Both of these aspects of the study of the lexical system are closely related, since for a correct understanding of the vocabulary of a modern language, information on the history of its formation is necessary, and the current state of the vocabulary is one of the important sources for studying its history.

Tasks of lexicology. The subject of lexicology is the word, with which all other units of language are in one way or another connected: phonemes, morphemes, phrases, sentences. For this reason, the word is studied not only in lexicology, but also in other sections of linguistics (phonetics, word formation, morphology, syntax), but it is considered differently in these sections.

Phonetics studies the sound side of words and its meaning. Word formation studies the patterns of word creation. The object of morphology is grammatical meanings, grammatical forms and grammatical categories. In syntax, a word is considered from the perspective of its participation in the construction of phrases and sentences.

Lexicology studies the word as a linguistic element of the lexical system. Hence, its tasks include: a) clarifying the semantic structure of the word (polysemy - homonymy); b) identifying the relationships between different semantic series of words (synonymy and antonymy); c) determining the place of a word in the lexical system of the language from the point of view of functional-stylistic (stylistically neutral, book and colloquial vocabulary), sphere of use (national, dialect, special, vernacular and slang vocabulary), origin (original Russian, Old Church Slavonic and foreign language vocabulary), active and passive stock (archaisms, historicisms and neologisms).

Lexicology is closely related to other linguistic disciplines: semasiology, etymology, dialectology, stylistics and lexicography.

Semasiology(Greek semasia - meaning and logos - teaching) studies the meanings of words, as well as changes in these meanings. In the first case, semasiology is included in descriptive lexicology, and in the second - in historical lexicology. Etymology (Greek etumo1ogia - truth, original meaning) studies the origin of words and their significant parts and, therefore, is a branch of historical lexicology. Dialectology (Greek dialectos - dialect and 1оgos - teaching) analyzes local dialects, incl. and their vocabulary. Data from dialectology are used by lexicology to clarify the areas of functioning of vocabulary. Stylistics (French Greek stylas - writing stick of the ancient Greeks) studies the ways of using linguistic means to accurately express thoughts and achieve communication goals in a certain area, under certain conditions. This section of linguistics is directly related to lexicology, since it studies all the means of expression available in the language, incl. and vocabulary. Lexicography (Greek lexilcon - dictionary and grapho - write) deals with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries that contain a description of vocabulary. Therefore, there is a connection between lexicology and lexicography.

Let us illustrate what has been said about the connection between lexicology and other branches of the science of language with a specific example. Yes, in a word soar semasiology will determine the following meanings: a) to remain, to be: And here there are birds and insects swarming through the air (Hold); b) live, dwell somewhere : Furry animals hover in the depths of dense forests (Kar.); c) be in a dreamy state, not noticing your surroundings: Soaring in the clouds, in the empyrean, between the sky and the earth. Etymology will reveal that this word came into the Russian language from the Old Church Slavonic language, where it sounded vitati, and related to words inhabit, - abode, vital - hotel. Stylistics will indicate that this word in the first meaning is outdated, and in the second it is stylistically colored (bookish); the characteristics of a given word are recorded in dictionaries: all meanings and stylistic notes are indicated in explanatory and phraseological dictionaries, the origin is in etymological dictionaries. Lexicology will consider all the above characteristics of a given word: its meaning, stylistic functions, areas of use, origin. A comprehensive description of a word helps to determine the literary norms of its use.

Consequently, in lexicology, words are studied from the point of view of their semantic meaning, place in the general system of vocabulary, origin, usage, scope of application in the process of communication and their stylistic coloring.

3. The word as the basic unit of the Russian language.

Like any other language, Russian as a means of communication is a language of words. From words, acting separately or as components of phraseological units, sentences are formed using grammatical rules and laws. Words in language designate specific objects and abstract concepts, express human emotions, will, call “general, abstract categories of existential relations,” etc. Thus, the word acts as the basic unit of language.

Despite the undoubted reality of the word as a separate linguistic phenomenon, despite the bright features inherent in it, it is difficult to define. This is explained primarily by the variety of words from structural, grammatical and semantic points of view (cf.: table, goodwill, write, black; sofa bed, five hundred; at, since, only, probably; scat! Oh!; they say, look, it’s getting light and so on.).

It is possible to give a correct definition of a word only if all the main differential features of the word are organically reflected, sufficient to distinguish it from other linguistic units.

The word differs from phonemes two-dimensionality , since it always appears as an organic unity of sound and meaning. Words are necessarily differentiated from phrases (including stable phrases, i.e. phraseological units) accentologically : they are either unstressed or have only one main stress.

A word is distinguished from morphemes (significant parts of a word) primarily by its lexico-grammatical reference , i.e. belonging to a certain part of speech. Words differ from prepositional-case combinations primarily in their impenetrability.

One of the basic properties of words existing in a language is their reproducibility , which consists in the fact that they are not created in the process of communication, but are extracted from memory or any speech context in the form of a single structural-semantic whole. Moreover, this feature in itself cannot be considered sufficient to differentiate words from other linguistic units: 1) reproducibility is also characteristic of morphemes and phraseological units and, moreover, even for sentences, as long as they coincide in their composition with a word or phraseological unit, 2) in the process of speech, words can arise that are not reproducible, but created morphemic combinations.

It is important to note that the word is characterized phonetic design (and also, of course, graphic, if a given language has, in addition to an oral form, a written form). A word is always a definite sound, consisting of at least one phoneme.

There are very few single-phonemic words in the Russian language, except for the names of existing phonemes and six letters (a, u, o, y, uh, s), this includes: unions a, u, particles a, u, pretext y, interjections a, u, o, y, uh, and also prepositions o, in, to, c (in certain cases they can act as two-phonemic about, in, to, with). The particle b, particle can also act as monophonemic and, union and, particle l, in its basic form used as two-phonemic. All other words are one or another sound complexes.

The only case of the absence of phonetic design in the Russian language is observed in the designation of one of the forms of the copula, in other forms acting as materially expressed (cf.: Father is a teacher; My father was a teacher; The father will be a teacher). In this case, the salience of the materially unexpressed (it is called the zero) copula as a significant unit of language, the reality of its existence as a linguistic fact, is realized against the background of materially expressed formations that are homogeneous in their function and use.

The phonetic design characteristic of a word is expressed in the fact that any lexical unit (if it does not represent a completely unlearned foreign language word or a neologism created without taking into account orthoepic norms) always acts as a sound structural unity that corresponds to the phonological norms of a given language system. A characteristic feature of the phonetic design of the Russian word is non-two-accent , since it is this property that allows one to clearly distinguish related phenomena of vocabulary and phraseology. A word, in contrast to a phraseological phrase, always appears either as unstressed or as having one main stress. If we have a unit (even if semantically and grammatically undivided and unified) that has two basic stresses, then this is obviously not a word, but a more complex formation: a phraseological phrase or a free combination of words.

No less important is another property of the word - its semantic valence . There is not a single word in the language that has no meaning. Every word has not only a certain sound, but also one or another meaning. This is precisely what distinguishes a word from a phoneme - a sound that can distinguish the sound shell of words and morphemes, but does not have meaning.

The property of a word that is absent from a morpheme, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ, is its distinctive feature - lexico-grammatical relation . Morphemes, existing as a further indivisible meaningful whole in a word, do not have a lexical-grammatical relationship. Οʜᴎ act as significant parts, deprived not only of any morphological design, but also of any attachment to a specific lexical-grammatical category. As parts of a word, morphemes are completely incapable of syntactic use and, when used in a sentence, immediately turn into words, acquiring bright and undoubted morphological features of a noun. Function words are closest to morphemes; their meanings are very “formal”, they have no grammatical form. At the same time, function words (including prepositions) appear before us as undoubted words.

Indirectly and reflectedly (but very effectively) in distinguishing function words (especially prepositions) from morphemes, the property helps the researcher impenetrability words, which are one of the most striking features of a word, in contrast to prepositional combinations, free combinations of words and certain categories of phraseological units that are semantically equivalent to the word. After all, if the word as a morphemic whole is impenetrable, then the meaningful units, between which free verbal “insertions” are possible, are words, and only words, but in no case morphemes. And vice versa, significant units, between which free verbal insertions are impossible, are not separate words, representing either parts of a word, that is, morphemes, or parts of a phraseological phrase.

The property of impenetrability is characteristic of absolutely all words: it is impossible to insert words (and especially combinations of words) inside words in the Russian language.

To clarify the essence of a word as a specific linguistic unit, no less important than solving the problem of the individuality of a word is also solving the question of its identity. It is important to establish not only what a word is in relation to other units of language, but also where we have the same word and where there are different words. Here, first of all, a clear line should be drawn between such concepts as: 1) words and word forms and 2) word forms and word variants.

By forms of a word, it is most expedient to understand those varieties of it that differ from each other only in grammatical features and are related as dependent, secondary to the same one, which acts as the main, initial one. All other varieties of the word are better (and, I think, more accurate) characterized as different variants of the word.

Naturally, only such formations are varieties of a word, the basis of which necessarily consists of the same morphemes. It is impossible to classify such formations as varieties of the same word: palatalize - palatalize, seminar - seminary, idiomatic - idiomatic, fox - fox, laughter - laughter, sunflower - sunflower, purification - purification, girlish - girlish, weaken - weaken, unbearable - unbearable, sorry - sorry etc. All such formations are in relation to each other single-root synonyms, i.e., although related, but different words.

In all cases, if a word has several forms, one of them acts as the main, initial one, and all the rest are dependent on it. Such basic, initial forms are forms of the nominative case in names, the infinitive in a verb, etc. Their “general” character in relation to other forms correlative with them is manifested in the fact that they act, firstly, as nominative forms, representing the name of any phenomenon of reality, and secondly, as generating forms, on the basis of which, with rare exceptions, the production of new lexical units is carried out using the morphological method of word formation. In addition, the “general” nature of the basic, initial form of the word (and this is especially important for understanding the essence of the word and formulating its definition) is also reflected in the fact that in the Russian language there is not a single word whose basic, original form would be analytical, that is, it would consist of two. It is this circumstance that makes it possible to clearly determine the accentological differences between a word and a phrase and phraseological unit, since in its original form a word never has two basic accents.

Taking into account the “general” nature of the original, basic form among other forms of the word makes it possible to easily solve, in particular, the problem of such formations in the Russian language as I will write, the best one etc., clearly demonstrating (as well as words like sofa bed) the failure of the criterion of completeness for Russian words in all their structural and grammatical diversity. Indeed, in such cases, we are faced with words that consist not of structurally and grammatically unformed morphemes, but of two separately formed words.

What has been said above about the word as a linguistic unit allows us to give a working definition of the word in the following formulation: word - ϶ᴛᴏ a linguistic unit that has (if it is not unstressed) in its original form one main stress and has meaning, lexico-grammatical relevance and impenetrability.

Lecture No. 2. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Lecture No. 2." 2017, 2018.